Abstract
The role played by supply chain actors in the rapid development of groundwater-based irrigated agriculture is analyzed. Agricultural groundwater use has increased tremendously in the past 50 years, leading to the decline of water tables. Groundwater use has enabled intensification of existing farming systems and ensured economic growth. This “groundwater economy” has been growing rapidly due to the initiative of farmers and the involvement of a wide range of supply chain actors, including suppliers of equipment, inputs retailers, and distributors of irrigated agricultural products. In North Africa, the actors in irrigated production chains often operate at the margin of public policies and are usually described as “informal”, “unstructured”, and as participating in “groundwater anarchy”. This paper underlines the crucial role of supply chain actors in the development of groundwater irrigation, a role largely ignored by public policies and rarely studied. The analysis is based on three case studies in Morocco, Tunisia and Algeria, and focuses on the horticultural sub-sector, in particular on onions and tomatoes, which are irrigated high value crops. The study demonstrates that although supply chain actors are catalyzers of the expansion of groundwater irrigation, they could also become actors in adaptation to the declining water tables. Through their informal activities, they help reduce market risks, facilitate credit and access to subsidies, and disseminate innovation. The interest associated with making these actors visible to agricultural institutions is discussed, along with methods of getting them involved in the management of the resource on which they depend.
Résumé
Le rôle joué par les acteurs des filières dans le développement rapide de l’agriculture irriguée basée sur les eaux souterraines est analysé. L’utilisation des eaux souterraines pour l’agriculture a considérablement augmenté ces 50 dernières années, entrainant un déclin des niveaux piézométriques des nappes dans plusieurs régions du monde. L’utilisation de l’eau souterraine a permis l’intensification des systèmes agricoles existants et a assuré la croissance économique. Cette « économie basée sur les eaux souterraines » a connu une croissance rapide grâce à l’initiative des agriculteurs et à la participation d’un large éventail d’acteurs des chaines de production, incluant les fournisseurs d’équipement, les détaillants de produits, et les distributeurs de produits agricoles issus de l’agriculture irriguée. Dans le Nord de l’Afrique, les acteurs des chaînes de production agricole irriguée opèrent souvent en marge des politiques publiques et sont habituellement décrits comme « informels », « non structurés », et comme participant « l'exploitation anarchique des eaux souterraines ». Cet article souligne le rôle crucial des acteurs des chaines de production dans le développement de l’agriculture irriguée par les eaux souterraines, un rôle largement ignoré par les politiques publiques et peu étudié. L’analyse est basée sur trois cas d’étude au Maroc, en Tunisie et en Algérie, et se concentre sur le sous-secteur de l’horticulture, en particulier sur les oignons et les tomates, qui sont des cultures irriguées à haute valeur économique. L’étude démontre que bien que les acteurs des chaines de production soient les catalyseurs du développement de l’irrigation par les eaux souterraines, ils pourraient également devenir les acteurs de l’adaptation à la baisse des niveaux piézométriques. Grâce à leurs activités informelles, ils aident à réduire les risques du marché, à faciliter l'accès aux crédits et aux subventions, et à disséminer l’innovation. L’intérêt de rendre ces acteurs visibles vis-à-vis des institutions agricoles est discuté, ainsi que les méthodes leur permettant d’être impliqués dans la gestion de la ressource dont ils dépendent.
Resumen
Se analiza el papel desempeñado por los actores en la cadena de suministro en el rápido desarrollo de la agricultura de regadío en base a agua subterránea. El uso agrícola del agua subterránea ha aumentado enormemente en los últimos 50 años, llevando a la profundización de la capa freática. El uso de agua subterránea ha permitido la intensificación de los sistemas agrícolas existentes y ha garantizado el crecimiento económico. Esta “economía del agua subterránea” ha crecido rápidamente debido a la iniciativa de los agricultores y la participación de una amplia gama de actores en la cadena de suministro, incluidos los proveedores de equipos, insumos minoristas y distribuidores de productos agrícolas para regadío. En el norte de África, los actores de las cadenas productivas de regadío a menudo operan al margen de las políticas públicas y suelen describirse como “informales”, “no estructurados” y como participantes de la “anarquía del agua subterránea”. Este documento resalta el papel crucial de los actores en la cadena de suministro en el desarrollo del riego con agua subterránea, un papel que en gran medida es ignorado por las políticas públicas y poco estudiado. El análisis se basa en tres estudios de caso en Marruecos, Túnez y Argelia, y se centra en el subsector hortícola, en particular en cebollas y tomates, que son cultivos de alto valor en el regadío. El estudio demuestra que aunque los actores en la cadena de suministro son catalizadores de la expansión del riego con agua subterránea, también podrían convertirse en actores en la adaptación par a la profundización de la capa freática. A través de sus actividades informales, ayudan a reducir los riesgos de mercado, facilitan el crédito y el acceso a los subsidios, y difunden la innovación. Se discute el interés asociado con la acción para que estos actores sean visibles para las instituciones agrícolas, junto con los métodos para involucrarlos en la gestión del recurso del cual dependen.
الملخص
تم تحليل دور فاعلي سلسلة التوريد في التطور السريع للزراعة المروية القائمة على المياه الجوفية، هذه الأخيرة التي زاد استخدامها الزراعي بشكل كبير في السنوات الـ50 الماضية، مما أدى إلى انخفاض منسوبها، فقد مكن استخدامها في تكثيف النظم الزراعية القائمة وضمان نموها الاقتصادي. إن “ اقتصاد المياه الجوفية” تزايد بسرعة نتيجة لمبادرات المزارعين في إشراك مجموعة واسعة من الجهات الفاعلة في سلسلة التوريد، بما في ذلك موردي المعدات و المدخلات، تجار التجزئة و موزعي المنتجات الزراعية المروية. ففي شمال أفريقيا، تعمل الجهات الفاعلة في الشعب الفلاحية المروية في كثير من الأحيان، على هامش السياسات العامة و توصف عادة بأنها “غير رسمية”، “غير منظمة”، وأنها تشارك في “ فوضى استغلال المياه الجوفية”. و تأتي هذه الورقة للتأكيد على الدور الحاسم للفاعلين في سلسلة التوريد في تطوير الري بالمياه الجوفية، وهو دور تجاهلته إلى حد كبير السياسات العامة، و نادرا ما تتم دراسته. و يستند هذا التحليل على دراسة حالة: المغرب، تونس و الجزائر، و يركز على القطاع الفرعي للبستنه، لاسيما البصل والطماطم (البندورة)، التي هي من المحاصيل المروية ذات القيمة الاقتصادية العالية. و قد أوضحت الدراسة أنه بالإضافة إلي الدور المحفز الذي يؤديه الفاعلين في سلسة التوريد في المساهمة في مسار التكيف مع انخفاض منسوب المياه الجوفية، تساعد أنشطتهم غير الرسمية أيضا على تقليل مخاطر السوق، تسهيل الائتمان، الحصول على الإعانات و نشر الابتكار. كما ناقشت الفائدة المرتبطة بجعل ادوار هؤلاء الفاعلين واضحة للمؤسسات القائمة علي القطاع الزراعي، بالإضافة إلي إشراكهم في إدارة الموارد المائة.
摘要
本文分析了供应链实体在基于地下水灌溉的农业快速发展中发挥的作用。在过去的50年里农业地下水利用量显著增加,导致水位下降。地下水的利用能够强化现有的农业系统并保证经济增长。由于农民的主动性和大范围供应链实体诸如设备供应商、投入产品零售商和灌溉农业产品经销商的参与,“地下水经济”迅速增长。在北非,灌溉生产链的实体常常在公共政策的边缘起作用,通常被描述为“非正式的”、“松散的”,并且参与在“地下水无政府状态”中。本文强调了供应链实体在地下水灌溉开发中的重要作用,这个作用在很大程度上被公共政策所忽略以及很少被研究。分析基于在摩洛哥、突尼斯和阿尔及利亚进行的的三个研究实例,重点放在园艺方面,特别是放在受到灌溉的、高价值作物洋葱和西红柿上。研究结果说明,尽管供应链实体是地下水灌溉发展的催化剂,但它们也能在适应下降的地下水位中成为实体。通过其非正式活动,它们有助于减少市场风险,促进获取补贴和获取补贴的信誉以及传播创新成果。论述了使农业机构感受到这些实体的利益以及在资源管理中获取这些实体的方法。
Resumo
Analisa-se o papel desempenhado pelos agentes da cadeia de abastecimento no rápido desenvolvimento da agricultura irrigada por águas subterrâneas. O uso das águas subterrâneas na agricultura aumentou vultuosamente nos últimos 50 anos, causando o rebaixamento dos níveis freáticos. O uso das águas subterrâneas permitiu a intensificação de sistemas agrícolas existentes e garantiu o crescimento econômico. Esta “economia das águas subterrâneas” cresceu rapidamente devido a iniciativa de fazendeiros e do envolvimento de uma ampla cadeia de agentes, incluindo fornecedores de equipamentos, investimentos de comerciantes e distribuidores de produtos agrícolas irrigados. No Norte da África, os agentes nas cadeias da produção irrigada operaram muitas vezes a margem das políticas públicas e são normalmente descritos como “informais”, “desestruturados” e como participantes da “anarquia das águas subterrâneas”. Este artigo salienta o papel crucial dos agentes da cadeia de abastecimento no desenvolvimento da irrigação por águas subterrâneas, uma importância largamente ignorada pelas políticas públicas e raramente estudada. As análises são baseadas em três estudos de caso no Marrocos, Tunísia e Argélia, centrada no subsetor da horticultura, particularmente nas cebolas e tomates, que são culturas irrigadas de alto valor. O estudo demonstrou que apesar dos agendes da cadeia de abastecimento serem catalizadores da expansão da irrigação por águas subterrâneas, eles poderiam também se tornar agentes na adaptação da redução dos níveis freáticos. Através das suas atividades informais, eles ajudam a reduzir o risco de mercado, facilitam o crédito e acesso a subsídios e disseminam inovação. Discute-se o interesse em tornar estes atores visíveis para as instituições agrícolas, juntamente com os métodos para envolvê-los na gestão do recurso de que dependem.
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This study was carried out in the framework of the “Groundwater Arena” research project, financed by the French Agency for Research (ANR CEP S 09/11).
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This article is part of the topical collection “Groundwater-based agriculture in the Mediterranean”
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Lejars, C., Daoudi, A. & Amichi, H. The key role of supply chain actors in groundwater irrigation development in North Africa. Hydrogeol J 25, 1593–1606 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10040-017-1571-7
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10040-017-1571-7